Endocrine

 Hyperthyroidism

sustained hyperfunctioning of the thyroid gland due to an increase in thyroid 

hormones (T3 and T4). Elevated thyroid hormones suppress serum TSH levels.

General manifestations of hyperthyroidism

• Anxiety & insomnia

• Palpitations

Symptoms

• Heat intolerance

• Increased perspiration

• Weight loss without decreased appetite

Physical examination

• Goiter

• Hypertension

• Tremors involving fingers/hands

• Hyperreflexia

• Proximal muscle weakness

• Lid lag

• Atrial fibrillation

nutritional measures, including consumption of a diet high in calories (high in protein, 

carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals) to satisfy hunger and prevent weight loss and 

tissue wasting.

RAI

the primary form of treatment for individuals with hyperthyroidism. destroys or damages 

the thyroid (or part of it) but has a delayed response and may take up to 3 months to 

have a maximum effect. It is important for the nurse to teach the client about 

precautions to prevent exposing others to this radioactive substance.

• Avoid close proximity to pregnant women or children

• Do not breastfeed as RAI may be excreted through breast milk and could harm 

the infant

• Do not share utensils with others or use bare hands to handle food that is to be 

served to others

• Isolate personal laundry (eg, bed linens, towels, daily clothes) and wash it 

separately

• Use a separate toilet from the rest of the family and flush 2-3 times after each 

use

• Wash hands frequently and thoroughly, especially after restroom use

• Drink plenty of fluids

• Sleep in a separate bed from others and do not sit near others in an enclosed 

area for a prolonged period of time (eg, train or flight travel)

radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU) test. measures the metabolic activity in the thyroid 

gland in order to differentiate between the many types of thyroid disorders. For an 

accurate measurement, medications affecting the thyroid should be held 7 days prior to 

the test date and clients are NPO for 4 hours prior to iodine administration. Premenopausal women must take a pregnancy test. Dentures, metal, 

and jewelry should be removed.

Thyroid storm (thyrotoxicosis)

a serious and potentially life-threatening emergency for clients with Graves 

disease. This condition occurs when the thyroid gland releases large amounts of thyroid 

hormone in response to stress (eg, trauma, surgery, infection, mva). Characteristic 

features include tachycardia, hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias (eg, atrial fibrillation), 

and fever up to 104-106 F (40-41 C). Other findings include severe nausea, vomiting, 

anxiety, altered mentation, and seizures. The client often feels anxious, tremulous, or 

restless. Confusion and psychosis can occur, as can seizures and coma. Rapid 

treatment is necessary.

Beta-adrenergic blockers (atenolol, metoprolol, and propranolol) are given to relieve 

some of the symptoms of thyrotoxicosis. They block the effects of the sympathetic 

nervous system and treat symptoms such as tachycardia, hypertension, irritability, 

tremors, and nervousness in hyperthyroidism.

Respiratory distress is a life-threatening complication of thyroid surgery that occurs 

when swelling in the surgical area at the base of the neck compresses the 

airway. Stridor and/or difficulty breathing in the client who has had thyroid surgery 

should be reported immediately to the registered nurse, and a rapid response should be 

activated. Suctioning devices, oxygen, and a tracheostomy tray should be available for 

rapid surgical intervention

metabolic syndrome (insulin resistance syndrome)

- have an increased risk of diabetes and coronary artery disease.

Features of metabolic syndrome include increased waist circumference, elevated blood 

pressure, increased triglycerides, decreased HDL, and increased fasting blood 

glucose. The mnemonic is "We Better Think High Glucose" (Waist circumference, Blood 

pressure, Triglyceride, HDL, Glucose).

• Increased waist circumference: ≥40 in (102 cm) in men, ≥35 in (89 cm) in 

women (abdominal obesity)

• Blood pressure: ≥130 mm Hg systolic or ≥85 mm Hg diastolic or drug treatment 

for hypertension (HTN)

• Triglyceride level: >150 mg/dL (1.7 mmol/L) or drug treatment for elevated 

triglycerides

• High-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels: <40 mg/dL (1.04 mmol/L) in men and <50 

mg/dL (1.3 mmol/L) in women or drug treatment for low HDL-C

• Fasting glucose levels: ≥100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L) or drug treatment for elevated 

blood glucose (hyperglycemia)

Hypothyroidism

characterized by thyroid hormone deficit (low T3 and T4). TSH is elevated due to 

compensatory increase from pituitary.Symptoms of hypothyroidism may include fatigue, cold intolerance, constipation, dry 

skin, and brittle hair/nails, weight gain skin is cool, pale, and rough (due to dryness),

irregular or prolonged menstrual periods

Common manifestations include the following:

1. Decreased gut motility leading to constipation

2. Cool and pale skin due to decreased blood flow; hyperkeratosis results in dry and 

rough skin

3. Brittle nails and hair; hair loss due to poor blood supply

4. Bradycardia from low metabolic state

5. Joint pains and muscle aches are common

6. Clients can develop dementia and depression due to mental slowing

7. Cold intolerance characteristic

8. Modest weight gain

Myxedema coma is a complication associated with progression of symptoms 

of hypothyroidism from lethargy and mental sluggishness to a coma 

state. hypothermia, bradycardia, hypotension, and depressed mental status. The 

highest-priority intervention is respiratory support for the client exhibiting signs of acute 

respiratory distress.

Levothyroxine sodium

the first-line treatment for hypothyroidism during pregnancy to maintain adequate 

levels of maternal thyroid hormones, which are critical for fetal brain development. 

instruct the client to take levothyroxine in the morning on an empty stomach, at least 4

hours before or after taking a prenatal vitamin. Take separate from other medications

Symptoms of hypothyroidism typically begin to improve approximately 3-4 weeks after 

initiating levothyroxine. Therapy should not be stopped, even if symptoms resolve.

A client's dose is adjusted based on serum TSH levels to prevent too much or too little 

hormone. Clients must be taught to report signs of excess thyroid hormone such as 

heart palpitations/tachycardia, weight loss, and insomnia

treatment is lifelong and be taught the signs of excess hormone (eg, 

tachycardia/palpitations, weight loss, insomnia). The medication is best absorbed on an 

empty stomach and is safe to take during pregnancy.

expected response includes improved well-being with elevated mood, higher energy 

levels, and a heart rate that is within normal limits. The nurse should consult the health 

care provider if the heart rate is >100/min, or if the client reports chest pain, 

nervousness, or tremors; this may indicate that the dose is higher than 

necessary. Pharmacological therapy manages the symptoms of hypothyroidism, but it 

takes up to 8 weeks after initiation to see the full therapeutic effect.

Exophthalmos

a complication of hyperthyroidism (hypermetabolic state due to thyroid hormone 

overproduction) from Graves' disease. It is defined as a protrusion of the eyeballs 

caused by increased orbital tissue (connective, adipose, muscular) expansion and can 

be irreversible. The exposed cornea is at risk for dryness, injury, and infection.Nursing care for a client with exophthalmos includes:

• Maintaining the head of the bed in a raised position to facilitate fluid drainage 

from the periorbital area

• Using artificial tears or other similar products to moisten the eyes to prevent 

corneal drying (causes abrasions/ulcers)

• Taping the client’s eyelids shut during sleep if they do not close on their own

• Teaching the client the following:

o Regular visits to the ophthalmologist are necessary to measure eyeball 

protrusion and evaluate condition.

o If recommended, anti-thyroid drugs should be taken to prevent further 

exacerbation of exophthalmos.

o Smoking cessation is necessary as smoking increases the risk of Graves’ 

disease and associated eye problems.

o Restrict salt intake to decrease periorbital edema.

o Use dark glasses to decrease glare and prevent external irritants and 

infection.

o Perform intraocular muscle exercises (turning the eyes using complete 

range of motion) to maintain flexibility.

Diabetes insipidus (DI)

low levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

the kidneys excrete large quantities of very dilute urine (polyuria). This causes 

hypernatremia (elevated serum sodium due to deficit of free water) and increased serum 

osmolality, which lead to excessive thirst (polydipsia). low specific gravity 

(<1.003). Fluid volume deficit can lead to dehydration, hypernatremia, high serum 

osmolality, and weight loss.

Desmopressin acetate (DDAVP) is a synthetic form of ADH, which can be administered 

intravenously, orally, or via nasal spray. Effectiveness of therapy with desmopressin 

would be manifested by decreased urinary output and increased urine specific gravity as 

the urine becomes less dilute

insulin pump

A client prescribed CSII is taught how to self-manage the insulin pump. Key points 

include the importance of checking blood glucose levels at least 4 times a day, how to 

administer a bolus dose at mealtime to cover carbohydrate intake, how to administer a 

supplemental bolus dose to correct pre- and postprandial hyperglycemia, and the 

importance of balancing diet and exercise to avoid excess weight gain.

Addison's disease, or chronic adrenal insufficiency

adrenal glands do not produce adequate amounts of steroid hormones 

(mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens).

Symptoms include weight loss, muscle weakness & fatigue, low blood pressure, 

hypoglycemia, and hyperpigmented skin (skin folds, buccal area, palmar crease), 

hyperkalemia, vitiligo, weight loss, depression irritability.

Treatment consists of replacement therapy with oral mineralocorticoids and 

corticosteroidsA potential life-threatening complication is Addisonian crisis. Signs and symptoms 

include hypotension, tachycardia, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, hypoglycemia, fever, 

weakness, and confusion; these should be reported to the PHCP immediately.

Emergency management includes shock management with fluid resuscitation using 

0.9% normal saline and 5% dextrose, and administration of high-dose hydrocortisone 

replacement IV push.

Hirsutism

a condition in women that consists of male-pattern hair growth on the face, lower 

abdomen, chest, and back. Common causes are polycystic ovary syndrome and 

Cushing's syndrome.

Acanthosis nigricans

a skin condition that occurs with obesity and diabetes and appears as velvet-like patches 

of darkened, thick skin. These areas typically occur around the back of the neck and in 

the groin and armpits.

velvety light brownish to black skin thickening seen in the axillae, neck, or flexures and is 

indicative of insulin resistance (diabetic dermopathy). Skin tags (acrochordons) are 

commonly present on regions affected by acanthosis nigricans.

diabetic meal planning

eat foods with a low glycemic index and high fiber content. Saturated fats and sodium 

should be restricted.

1. Monitor carbohydrate intake

2. Manage caloric intake if weight loss is desired

3. High-fiber foods (30-35 g of fiber per day), including whole grains, legumes, 

fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products

4. Use monounsaturated fats, limit use of saturated fat, and eliminate trans fatty 

acids

5. Choose foods with a low glycemic index

6. Consume total cholesterol of <300 mg per day

7. Reduce sodium intake

8. Limit intake of foods containing sucrose

9. Limit intake of alcoholic beveragesdiabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

acute and serious complication generally due to lack of insulin in type 1 diabetes

characterized by hyperglycemia, ketosis, and acidosis

All clients with DKA experience dehydration due to osmotic diuresis. Prompt and 

adequate fluid therapy restores tissue perfusion and suppresses the elevated levels of 

stress hormones. The initial hydrating solution is 0.9% saline infusion.

Insulin therapy should be started after the initial rehydration bolus as serum glucose 

levels fall rapidly after volume expansion.

D5W is initiated when serum glucose is <250 mg/d to prevent hypoglycemia.

Hypokalemia often occurs with resolution of acidosis and administration of IV insulin as 

insulin shifts potassium from the intravascular space to the intracellular 

space. Therefore, potassium is administered even when the client is normokalemic (3.5-

5.0 mEq/L to prevent hypokalemia and subsequent life-threatening arrhythmias.

Clients with diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state require IV 

normal saline as a priority due to severe dehydration. Once fluids are given as a bolus, 

insulin is initiated. The serum potassium levels can be elevated in the initial stages 

despite a low total body potassium. Potassium repletion is started once the serum 

potassium levels are normalized or trending low (from elevated levels).

Hyperglycemia associated with DKA leads to osmotic diuresis, dehydration, electrolyte 

imbalance, and possible hypovolemic shock and renal failure. Deficient fluid volume 

related to osmotic diuresis is an appropriate ND for a client with DKA.

Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state

Serious complication usually associated with type 2 diabetes

severe hyperglycemia happens more slowly and is often not noted until neurological 

manifestations occur. neurological manifestations such as blurry vision, lethargy, 

obtundation, and progression to coma. Because some insulin is present, symptoms 

associated with ketones and acidosis, such as Kussmaul respirations (hyperventilation) 

and abdominal pain, are typically absent

Hyperparathyroidism

hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone causing bone breakdown that leads to 

hypercalcemia. Clients with hyperparathyroidism exhibit manifestations of 

hypercalcemia (eg, constipation, polyuria, muscle weakness, bone pain) and may 

subsequently develop pathologic fractures, osteoporosis, and/or kidney stones.

Hyperparathyroidism & hypoparathyroidism

Hyperparathyroidism (↑ PTH) Hypoparathyroidism (↓ PTH)

• ↑ Calcium, ↓ phosphate

• ↓ Calcium, ↑ phosphate

• Osteoporosis

• Tingling, numbness

• Nephrolithiasis

• Trousseau & Chvostek signs

• Polydipsia, polyuria

• Muscle spasms

• • • Constipation

Bone pain

Muscle pain

• SeizuresHypoglycemia

evidenced by low blood glucose <70 mg/dL

acute and potentially serious complication. Signs and symptoms include shakiness, 

palpitations, anxiety/arousal, restlessness, diaphoresis, and pallor. neuroglycopenic 

symptoms (confusion, seizures, coma) develop.

hypoglycemic reaction

A client who is alert enough to ingest food/liquids orally should be given 15grams of a 

simple carbohydrate (eg, 1 tbs syrup or honey, 4 tsp jelly, 4-6 oz orange juice, or 8 oz 

low-fat milk). Fingerstick blood glucose should be checked 10-15 minutes after. shows 

no improvement, the simple carbohydrate can be readministered orally.

Dextrose (D50 IV push) aministered to hypoglycemic clients who are unable to ingest a 

simple oral carbohydrate. These can cause rebound hypoglycemia by stimulating 

additional insulin release from the body in response to increased serum glucose levels.

Stress-induced hyperglycemia

can occur in hospitalized clients in relation to surgery, trauma, acute illness, and 

infection.

causes complications in the hospitalized client. To minimize complications, the 

recommended target glucose range for critically ill clients is 140-180 mg/d. For noncritically ill clients, <140 mg/dL fasting and <180 mg/d random blood glucose are 

recommended.

Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH)

potential complication of head injury

results in increased ADH. Too much ADH causes increased total body water, resulting 

in a low serum osmolality and low serum sodium. As ADH is secreted and water is 

retained, urine output is decreased and concentrated, resulting in a high specific gravity.

SIADH treatment includes fluid restriction, oral salt tablets, and administration of 3% 

saline IV and/or vasopressin receptor antagonists eg, conivaptan

Malignant lung tumors are a common cause of syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic 

hormone secretion (SIADH). When serum sodium drops below 120 mEq/L (120 

mmol/L), immediate intervention is necessary to prevent severe neurologic dysfunction.

.Cushing syndrome

prolonged exposure to excess corticosteroids

Clinical manifestations: weight gain, truncal obesity, moon face, skin atrophy, easy 

bruising, purple striae on the abdomen, muscle weakness, hypertension, and 

hyperglycemia. Associated androgen excess can result in acne, hirsutism, and 

menstrual irregularities.

Clinical features of Cushing syndrome include:

• Skin manifestations such as easy bruising, purple striae, and skin atrophy 

(topical preparations), which are a result of collagen loss.

• Fat redistribution resulting in truncal obesity and moon like face; thin 

extremities. Fat pads are seen on the neck and supraclavicular areas

• In women, androgens are produced in the adrenal gland. Androgen excess from 

adrenal gland stimulation can result in acne, hirsutism, and menstrual 

irregularities (oligomenorrhea)

• Mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) excess can result 

in hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and hypertension 

• Hyperglycemia as a result of excess corticosteroids.

• Untreated clients can develop proximal muscle weakness and bone 

loss (steroids catabolic on muscles and bone)

Acromegaly

an uncommon condition caused by growth hormone overproduction leading to 

overgrowth of soft tissues of the face, hands, feet, and organs. The nurse should 

monitor the client for signs and symptoms of acute complications (eg, heart failure) and 

report findings to the health care provider

Instructions for diabetic foot care include:

1. Wash feet daily with warm water and mild soap; test water temperature with 

thermometer beforehand. Gently pat feet dry, particularly between the toes. Use 

lanolin to prevent dry and cracked skin, but do not apply between the toes.

2. Inspect for abrasions, cuts, or sores. Have others inspect the feet if eyesight is 

poor.

3. To prevent injury, use cotton or lamb's wool to separate overlapping toes. Cut 

toenails straight across and use a nail file to file along the curves of the 

toes. Avoid going barefoot and wear sturdy leather shoes. Use mild foot powder 

to absorb perspiration and wear clean, absorbent socks with seams aligned.

4. Avoid using over-the-counter products (eg, iodine, alcohol, strong adhesives) on 

cuts or abrasions.

5. To improve circulation, do not sit with legs crossed or for extended periods, avoid 

tight-fitting garments, and perform daily exercise.

6. Report other types of problems such as infections or athlete's foot immediately.acute pancreatitis

Supportive care for symptom relief and prevention of complications are the major goals

These strategies include:

1. NPO status - The client is maintained on NPO status as any ingestion of food 

will stimulate the excretion of pancreatic enzymes. A nasogastric tube is used to 

suction out gastric secretions; this will reduce nausea and lessen stimulation of 

the pancreas as these juices will move to the duodenum.

2. Pain management - Intravenous opioids (eg, hydromorphone, fentanyl) are 

frequently utilized for pain management. Morphine can also be used; worsening 

pancreatitis due to increase in sphincter of Oddi pressure has not been proven in 

studies.

3. IV fluids - Aggressive fluid replacement to prevent hypovolemic shock is 

critical. Inflammation of the pancreas releases chemical mediators that increase

capillary permeability and cause third spacing (fluid going into empty spaces).

4. maintain positions that flex the trunk and draw the knees up to the abdomen 

(semi-Fowler's) to decrease tension on the abdomen. A side-lying position with 

the head elevated to 45 degrees will help relieve the pain even better.

**Impairment to the autonomic nervous system caused by neuropathy can cause 

symptoms such as postural hypotension and put the client at risk for falls.

**Hemoglobin A1C is a diagnostic test used to measure the percentage of glycosylated 

hemoglobin in the blood over a period of 2-3 months. A normal hemoglobin A1C is 4%-

6% in clients without diabetes; the goal is to keep the level <7% in clients with diabetes